H II region

NGC 604, a giant H II region in the Triangulum Galaxy

An H II region is a large cloud of gas and ionized gas of glowing low density in which star formation has recently taken place. Young, hot, blue stars—which have formed from the gas—emit copious amounts of ultraviolet light, ionizing and heating the gas surrounding them. H II regions—sometimes several hundred light-years across—are often associated with giant molecular clouds in which star formation takes place, and from which the stars that produce the H II region were born. The first H II known region is Orion Nebula discovered in 1610 by Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc.

H II regions are named for the large amount of ionised atomic hydrogen they contain, referred to as H II by astronomers (H I region being neutral atomic hydrogen, and H2 being molecular hydrogen). They have extremely diverse morphologies, because the distribution of the stars and gas inside them is inhomogeneous. They often appear clumpy and filamentary, sometimes showing bizarre shapes like the Horsehead Nebula. H II regions may give birth to thousands of stars over a period of several million years. In the end, supernova explosions and strong stellar winds from the most massive stars in the resulting star cluster will disperse the gases of the H II region, leaving behind a cluster such as the Pleiades.

H II regions can be seen out to considerable distances in the universe, and the study of extragalactic H II regions is important in determining the distance and chemical composition of other galaxies. Spiral and irregular galaxies contain a lot of H II regions, while elliptical galaxies are almost devoid of them. In the spiral galaxies, including the Milky Way, H II regions are concentrated in the spiral arms, while in the irregular galaxies they are distributed chaotically. Some galaxies contain huge H II regions, which may contain tens of thousands of stars. Examples include the 30 Doradus region in the Large Magellanic Cloud and NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy.

Contents

Observations

Dark star-forming regions within the Eagle Nebula

A few of the brightest H II regions are visible to the naked eye. However, none seem to have been noticed before the advent of the telescope in the early 17th century. Even Galileo did not notice the Orion Nebula when he first observed the star cluster within it (previously cataloged as a single star, θ Orionis, by Johann Bayer). French observer Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc is credited with the discovery of the Orion Nebula in 1610.[1] Since that early observation large numbers of H II regions have been discovered in the Milky Way and other galaxies.[2]

William Herschel observed the Orion Nebula in 1774, and described it later as "an unformed fiery mist, the chaotic material of future suns".[3] Confirmation of this hypothesis had to wait another hundred years, when William Huggins (assisted by his wife Mary Huggins) turned his spectroscope on various nebulae. Some, such as the Andromeda Nebula, had spectra quite similar to those of stars, and turned out to be galaxies consisting of hundreds of millions of individual stars. Others looked very different. Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed, the Orion Nebula and other similar objects showed only a small number of emission lines.[4] In planetary nebulae, the brightest of these spectral lines was at a wavelength of 500.7 nanometres, which did not correspond with a line of any known chemical element. At first it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element, which was named Nebulium—a similar idea had led to the discovery of helium through analysis of the Sun's spectrum in 1868.[5] However, while helium was isolated on earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the sun, Nebulium was not. In the early 20th century, Henry Norris Russell proposed that rather than being a new element, the line at 500.7 nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions.[6]

Orion Nebula

Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low densities, electrons can populate excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions which at higher densities are rapidly de-excited by collisions.[7] Electron transitions from these levels in doubly ionized oxygen give rise to the 500.7 nm line.[8] These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low density gases, are called forbidden lines. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that planetary nebulae consisted largely of extremely rarefied ionised oxygen gas ("OIII").

In HII regions, however, the dominant spectral line has a wavelength of 656.3 nm. This is the well-known H-alpha line emitted by atomic hydrogen. Specifically, a photon of this wavelength is emitted when the electron of a hydrogen atom changes its excitation state from n=3 to n=2. Such state changes happen very frequently when an electron is captured by an ionised hydrogen atom (a proton), and the electron cascades down from some higher excitation state to n=1. Thus, it was concluded that HII regions consist of a mix of electrons and ionised as well as constantly recombining hydrogen atoms.

During the 20th century, observations showed that H II regions often contained hot, bright stars.[8] These stars are many times more massive than the Sun, and are the shortest-lived stars, with total lifetimes of only a few million years (compared to stars like the Sun, which live for several billion years). Therefore it was surmised that H II regions must be regions in which new stars were forming.[8] Over a period of several million years, a cluster of stars will form out of an H II region, before radiation pressure from the hot young stars causes the nebula to disperse.[9] The Pleiades are an example of a cluster which has 'boiled away' the H II region from which it formed. Only a trace of reflection nebulosity remains.

Origin and lifetime

See also: Stellar evolution
A small portion of the Tarantula Nebula, a giant H II region in the Large Magellanic Cloud

The precursor to an H II region is a giant molecular cloud (GMC). A GMC is a cold (10–20 K) and dense cloud consisting mostly of molecular hydrogen.[2] GMCs can exist in a stable state for long periods of time, but shock waves due to supernovae, collisions between clouds, and magnetic interactions can all trigger the collapse of part of the cloud. When this happens, via a process of collapse and fragmentation of the cloud, stars are born (see stellar evolution for a lengthier description).[9]

As stars are born within a GMC, the most massive will reach temperatures hot enough to ionise the surrounding gas.[2] Soon after the formation of an ionising radiation field, energetic photons create an ionisation front, which sweeps through the surrounding gas at supersonic speeds. At greater and greater distances from the ionising star, the ionisation front slows, while the pressure of the newly ionised gas causes the ionised volume to expand. Eventually, the ionisation front slows to subsonic speeds, and is overtaken by the shock front caused by the expansion of the nebula. The H II region has been born.[10]

The lifetime of an H II region is of the order of a few million years.[11] Radiation pressure from the hot young stars will eventually drive most of the gas away. In fact, the whole process tends to be very inefficient, with less than 10 per cent of the gas in the H II region forming into stars before the rest is blown away.[9] Also contributing to the loss of gas are the supernova explosions of the most massive stars, which will occur after only 1–2 million years.

Destruction of stellar nurseries

Bok globules in H II region IC 2944

Stars form in clumps of cool molecular gas that hide the nascent stars. It is only when the radiation pressure from a star drives away its 'cocoon' that it becomes visible. The hot, blue stars that are powerful enough to ionize significant amounts of hydrogen and form H II regions will do this quickly, and light up the region in which they just formed. The dense regions which contain younger or less massive forming stars and have not blown away the material from which they formed are often seen in silhouette against the rest of the ionised nebula—these dark patches are known as Bok globules, after astronomer Bart Bok, who proposed in the 1940s that they might be stellar birthplaces,[12] a hypothesis which was shown to be correct in 1990.[13] The presence of the hot, young stars means that these globules will begin to dissipate, as the radiation from the stars powering the H II region drive the material away. In this sense, the stars which generate H II regions act to destroy stellar nurseries. In doing so, however, one last burst of star formation may be triggered, as radiation pressure and mechanical pressure from supernova may act to squeeze globules, thereby enhancing the density inside the globule.[14]

The young stars in H II regions show evidence for containing planetary systems. The Hubble Space Telescope has revealed hundreds of protoplanetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula.[15] At least half the young stars in the Orion Nebula appear to be surrounded by disks of gas and dust,[16] thought to contain many times as much matter as would be needed to create a planetary system like the Solar System.

Characteristics

Physical properties

H II regions vary greatly in their physical properties. They range in size from so-called ultra-compact (UCHII) regions perhaps only a light-year or less across, to giant H II regions several hundred light-years across.[2] Their size is also known as the Stromgren radius and essentially depends on the intensity of the source of ionising photons and the density of the region. Their densities range from over a million particles per cm³ in the ultra-compact H II regions to only a few particles per cm³ in the largest and most extended regions. This implies total masses between perhaps 102 and 105 solar masses.[17]

There are also, "ultra-dense HII" regions, (UDHII)[18].

Depending on the size of an H II region there may be several thousand stars within it. This makes H II regions more complicated than planetary nebulae, which have only one central ionising source. Typically H II regions reach temperatures of 10,000 K.[2] They are mostly ionised gases with weak magnetic fields with strengths of several nanoteslas.[19] Nevertheless H II regions are almost always associated with a cold molecular gas, which originated from the same parent GMC.[2] Magnetic fields are produced by these weak moving electric charges in the ionised gas, suggesting that H II regions might contain electric fields.[20]

Chemically, H II regions consist of about 90% hydrogen. The strongest hydrogen emission line at 656.3 nm gives H II regions their characteristic red colour. Most of the rest of an H II region consists of helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements. Across the galaxy, it is found that the amount of heavy elements in H II regions decreases with increasing distance from the galactic centre.[21] This is because over the lifetime of the galaxy, star formation rates have been greater in the denser central regions, resulting in greater enrichment of the interstellar medium with the products of nucleosynthesis.

Numbers and distribution

Strings of red H II regions delineate the arms of the Whirlpool Galaxy

H II regions are found only in spiral galaxies like the Milky Way and irregular galaxies. They are rarely seen in elliptical galaxies. In irregular galaxies, they may be found throughout the galaxy, but in spirals they are most abundant within the spiral arms. A large spiral galaxy may contain thousands of H II regions.[17]

The reason H II regions rarely appear in elliptical galaxies is that ellipticals are believed to form through galaxy mergers.[22] In galaxy clusters, such mergers are frequent. When galaxies collide, individual stars almost never collide, but the GMCs and H II regions in the colliding galaxies are severely agitated.[22] Under these conditions, enormous bursts of star formation are triggered, so rapid that most of the gas is converted into stars rather than the normal 10% or less.

Galaxies undergoing such rapid star formation are known as starburst galaxies. The post-merger elliptical galaxy has a very low gas content, and so H II regions can no longer form.[22] Twenty first century observations have shown that a very small number of H II regions exist outside galaxies altogether. These intergalactic H II regions may be the remnants of tidal disruptions of small galaxies, and in some cases they may represent a new generation of stars in a galaxy's most recently accreted gas.[23]

Morphology

H II regions come in an enormous variety of sizes. They are usually clumpy and inhomogeneous on all scales from the smallest to largest.[2] Each star within an H II region ionises a roughly spherical region—known as a Strömgren sphere—of the gas surrounding it, but the combination of ionisation spheres of multiple stars within an H II region and the expansion of the heated nebula into surrounding gases with sharp density gradients results in complex shapes.[24] Supernova explosions may also sculpt H II regions. In some cases, the formation of a large star cluster within an H II region results in the region being hollowed out from within. This is the case for NGC 604, a giant H II region in the Triangulum Galaxy.[25]

Notable H II regions

An optical image (left) reveals clouds of gas and dust in the Orion Nebula; an infrared image (right) reveals new stars shining within

Notable Galactic H II regions include the Orion Nebula, the Eta Carinae Nebula, and the Berkeley 59 / Cepheus OB4 Complex.[26] The Orion Nebula, which lies at a distance of about 500 pc (1,500 light-years) is part of a GMC (called OMC-1) which, if it were visible, would fill most of the constellation of Orion.[8] The Horsehead Nebula and Barnard's Loop are two other illuminated parts of this cloud of gas.[27] The Orion Nebula is actually a thin layer of ionised gas on the outer border of the OMC-1 cloud. The stars in the Trapezium cluster and especially θ1 Orionis are responsible for this ionisation.[8]

The Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way at about 50 kpc (160 thousand light years) from the Sun, contains a giant H II region called the Tarantula Nebula. Measuring at about 200 pc (650 light years) this nebula is the most massive and second largest H II region in the Local group.[28] It is much bigger than the Orion Nebula, and is forming thousands of stars, some with masses of over 100 times that of the sun—OB and Wolf-Rayet stars. If the Tarantula Nebula was as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula, it would shine about as brightly as the full moon in the night sky. The supernova SN 1987A occurred in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula.[24]

Another giant H II region—NGC 604 is located in M33 spiral galaxy, which is about 817 kpc (2.66 million light years) away from the Sun. Measuring at approximately 240 × 250 pc (800 × 830 light years) across NGC 604 is the second most massive H II region in the Local group after the Tarantula Nebula, however, it is slightly larger than the latter. It contains around 200 hot OB and Wolf-Rayet stars, which heat the gas inside it to millions of degrees producing the bright X-ray emissions. The total mass of the hot gas in NGC 604 is about 6,000 Solar masses.[25]

Current issues

Trifid Nebula seen at different wavelengths

As with planetary nebulae, determinations of the abundance of elements in H II regions are subject to some uncertainty.[29] There are two different ways of determining the abundance of metals (that is, elements other than hydrogen and helium) in nebulae, which rely on different types of spectral lines, and large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods.[28] Some astronomers put this down to the presence of small temperature fluctuations within H II regions; others claim that the discrepancies are too large to be explained by temperature effects, and hypothesise the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations.[29]

The full details of massive star formation within H II regions are not yet well known. Two major problems hamper research in this area. First, the distance from Earth to large H II regions is considerable, with the nearest H II (California Nebula) region being over 300 pc (1,000 light-years) away;[30] other H II regions are several times that distance away from Earth. Secondly, the formation of these stars is deeply obscured by dust, and visible light observations are impossible. Radio and infrared light can penetrate the dust, but the youngest stars may not emit much light at these wavelengths.[27]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Harrison, T.G. (1984). "The Orion Nebula—where in History is it". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 25: 65–79. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984QJRAS..25...65H. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Anderson, L.D.; Bania, T.M.; Jackson, J.M. et al. (2009). "The molecular properties of galactic HII regions". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 181: 255–271. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/181/1/255. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJS..181..255A. 
  3. ↑ Jones, Kenneth Glyn (1991). Messier's nebulae and star clusters. Cambridge University Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780521370790. http://books.google.com/?id=SLEzPBn1i2gC&pg=PA157. 
  4. ↑ Huggins, W.; Miller, W.A. (1864). "On the Spectra of some of the Nebulae". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 154: 437–444. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1864RSPT..154..437H. 
  5. ↑ Tennyson, Jonathan (2005). Astronomical spectroscopy: an introduction to the atomic and molecular physics of astronomical spectra. Imperial College Press. pp. 99–102. ISBN 9781860945137. 
  6. ↑ Russell, H.N.; Dugan, R.S.; Stewart, J.Q (1927). Astronomy II Astrophysics and Stellar Astronomy. Boston: Ginn & Co.. p. 837. 
  7. ↑ Bowen, I.S. (1928). "The origin of the nebular lines and the structure of the planetary nebulae". Astrophysical Journal 67: 1–15. doi:10.1086/143091. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928ApJ....67....1B. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 O’Dell, C.R. (2001). "The Orion Nebula and its associated population" (pdf). Annual Review Astronomy and Astrophysics 39: 99–136. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.39.1.99. http://astro.if.ufrgs.br/evol/bib/odell.pdf. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Pudritz, Ralph E. (2002). "Clustered Star Formation and the Origin of Stellar Masses". Science 295 (5552): 68–75. doi:10.1126/science.1068298. PMID 11778037. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/295/5552/68. 
  10. ↑ Franco, J.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Bodenheimer, P. (1990). "On the formation and expansion of H II regions". Astrophysical Journal 349: 126–140. doi:10.1086/168300. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ApJ...349..126F. 
  11. ↑ Alvarez, M.A.; Bromm, V.; Shapiro, P.R. (2006). "The H II Region of the First Star". Astrophysical Journal 639: 621–632. doi:10.1086/499578. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ApJ...639..621A. 
  12. ↑ Bok, Bart J.; Reilly, Edith F. (1947). "Small Dark Nebulae". Astrophysical Journal 105: 255–257. doi:10.1086/144901. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947ApJ...105..255B. 
  13. ↑ Yun, J.L.; Clemens, D.P. (1990). "Star formation in small globules – Bart Bok was correct". Astrophysical Journal 365: 73–76. doi:10.1086/185891. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ApJ...365L..73Y. 
  14. ↑ Stahler, S.; Palla, F. (2004). The Formation of Stars. Wiley VCH. doi:10.1002/9783527618675. ISBN 9783527618675. 
  15. ↑ Ricci, L.; Robberto, M.; Soderblom, D. R. (2008). "The Hubble Space Telescope/advanced Camera for Surveys Atlas of Protoplanetary Disks in the Great Orion Nebula". Astronomical Journal 136 (5): 2136–2151. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/2136. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AJ....136.2136R. 
  16. ↑ O'dell, C. R.; Wen, Zheng (1994). "Post refurbishment mission Hubble Space Telescope images of the core of the Orion Nebula: Proplyds, Herbig-Haro objects, and measurements of a circumstellar disk". Astrophysical Journal 436 (1): 194–202. doi:10.1086/174892. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ApJ...436..194O. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Flynn, Cris (2005). "Lecture 4B: Radiation case studies (HII regions)". http://www.astro.utu.fi/~cflynn/astroII/l4B.html. Retrieved 2009-05-14. 
  18. ↑ Kobulnicky & Johnson; Johnson, Kelsey E. (1999). "Signatures of the Youngest Starbursts: Optically Thick Thermal Bremsstrahlung Radio Sources in Henize 2-10". ApJ 527: 154–166. doi:10.1086/308075. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...527..154K. 
  19. ↑ Heiles, C.; Chu, Y.-H.; Troland, T.H. (1981). "Magnetic field strengths in the H II regions S117, S119, and S264". Astrophysical Journal Letters 247: L77–L80. doi:10.1086/183593. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ApJ...247L..77H. 
  20. ↑ Carlqvist, P; Kristen, H.; Gahm, G.F. (1998). "Helical structures in a Rosette elephant trunk". Astronomy and Astrophysics 332: L5–L8. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998A%26A...332L...5C. 
  21. ↑ Shaver, P. A.; McGee, R. X.; Newton, L. M.; Danks, A. C.; Pottasch, S. R. (1983). "The galactic abundance gradient". MNRAS 204: 53–112. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983MNRAS.204...53S. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Hau, George K. T.; Bower, Richard G.; Kilborn, Virginia et al. (2008). "Is NGC 3108 transforming itself from an early- to late-type galaxy – an astronomical hermaphrodite?". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 385: 1965–72. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12740.x. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MNRAS.385.1965H. 
  23. ↑ Oosterloo T., Morganti R., Sadler E.M. et al. (2004). Tidal Remnants and Intergalactic H II Regions, IAU Symposium no. 217, Sydney, Australia. Eds Duc, Braine and Brinks. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2004., p.486
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Townsley, Leisa K.; Broos, Patrick S.; Feigelson, Eric D. et al. (2008). "A Chandra ACIS Study of 30 Doradus. I. Superbubbles and Supernova Remnants". The Astronomical Journal 131: 2140–2163. doi:10.1086/500532. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006AJ....131.2140T. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Tullmann, Ralph; Gaetz, Terrance J.; Plucinsky, Paul P. et al. (2008). "The chandra ACIS survey of M33 (ChASeM33): investigating the hot ionized medium in NGC 604". The Astrophysical Journal 685: 919–932. doi:10.1086/591019. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApJ...685..919T. 
  26. ↑ Majaess, D. J.; Turner, D.; Lane, D.; Moncrieff, K. (2008). "The Exciting Star of the Berkeley 59/Cepheus OB4 Complex and Other Chance Variable Star Discoveries". The Journal of the American Association of Variable Star Observers 36 (1): 90. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JAVSO..36...90M. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Lebouteiller, V.; Bernard-Salas, J.; Plucinsky, Brandl B. et al. (2008). "Chemical composition and mixing in giant HII regions: NGC 3603, Doradus 30, and N66". The Astrophysical Journal 680: 398–419. doi:10.1086/587503. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApJ...680..398L. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Tsamis, Y.G.; Barlow, M.J.; Liu, X-W. et al. (2003). "Heavy elements in Galactic and Magellanic Cloud H II regions: recombination-line versus forbidden-line abundances". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 338: 687–710. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06081.x. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003MNRAS.338..687T. 
  30. ↑ Straizys, V.; Cernis, K.; Bartasiute, S. (2001). "Interstellar extinction in the California Nebula region". Astronomy & Astrophysics 374: 288–293. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010689. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001A%26A...374..288S. 

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